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Crisis

Crisis

::For other uses of the word, see the disambiguation page. A crisis is a turning point or decisive moment in events. Typically, it is the moment from which an illness may go on to death or recovery. More loosely, it is a term meaning 'a testing time' or 'emergency event'. It is a concept in economics (discussed elsewhere) and in international relations, discussed below.

Crises in international relations

For information about crises as a field of study in international relations, see crisis management and international crisis. In this context, a crisis can be loosely defined as a situation where there is a perception of threat, heightened anxiety, expectation of possible violence and the belief that any actions will have far-reaching consequences (Lebow, 7-10).

Crisis in terms of Information Security

In InfoSec Crisis is the present tense of a disaster. An uncontrolled disaster or a combination of mismanaged disasters could lead to a crisis. The magnitude of crisis could be bigger than a disaster in terms of loss expectancy. A crisis usually happens because of accumulated unattended/unresolved disasters/issue(s). It is always the goal of InfoSec to contain the disaster and never give it a chance to become a crisis. When a disaster becomes a crisis it usually out of control in some form or proportion. Every Crisis is a disaster, on the same token a Disaster need not be a crisis, because it could be controlled way before it becomes crisis. Time is another factor that differentiates between crisis and disaster. Crisis usually has a longer lifespan as compared to Disaster because the birth of Crisis arises is from one or more unattended or uncontrolled or mismanaged Disasters. One factor might trigger a disaster (‘an emergency event’), where as a crisis usually needs one or more factor(s) that were either mismanaged, unattended or unresolved in the initial stages as disasters and as a result those disaster(s) converges to form a crisis, hence the term Crisis Management. Usually it is seen that people are not able to clearly distinguish in information security between Disaster and Crisis and when one ends and other starts.

References

# Borodzicz, E. P. 2004 'The Missing Ingredient is the value of Flexibility' International Journal of Simulations and Games, 35(3):414-426 Sage. # Lebow, RN, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis: 1981. ISBN 0-8018-3211-0.

Crisis (disambiguation)

Crisis can refer to any of the following:
- a situation where there is a perception of threat, heightened anxiety, expectation of possible violence and the belief that any actions will have far-reaching consequences — see crisis;
- Crisis, a British charity that campaigns on behalf of, and offers services to, single homeless people (formerly known as Crisis at Christmas) — see Crisis (charity)
- Crisis, the name of a British comic published from 1988 to 1991 — see Crisis (comic);
- Crisis, a heavy metal group — see Crisis (band);
- a 1946 film directed by Ingmar Bergman — see Crisis (film); or
- The Crisis, the journal of the NAACP — see The Crisis.
- Crisis, an American Roman Catholic magazine.
- The Crisis is an event in Final Fantasy VII where the Lifestream becomes corrupted by Sephiroth.
- Crisis on Infinite Earths is a twelve-issue maxiseries published by DC Comics that essentially rebooted DC's entire continuity.
- Infinite Crisis is a seven-issue miniseries currently in production by DC Comics that is the sequel to Crisis on Infinite Earths.
- Crisis is a 1950 film by the American director Richard Brooks

Turning Point

Turning Point or a turning point may refer to:
- A turning point is a discrimen, one of the two marked points on a cursus or classical-period race-track.
- The concept of the discrimen is used figuratively in describing events such as those of the fortune of war, which, having tended in one direction, then tend in the opposite way. A turning point is thus a crisis.
- Turning Point, a television show
- Turning Point, a computer wargame
- Turning Point, a melodic hardcore band
- Turning Point, a Zydeco vocal
- Turning Point, an institute in Ireland
- One of two movies, strictly, The Turning Point
- A type of stationary point (either a maximum or a minimum) in mathematics (and more specifically in calculus and curve sketching).
- Turning Point, an album by R&B singer Mario Barrett (commonly known just as "Mario").
- Turning Point, a British charity in the field of youth social exclusion and substance misuse.
- Turning Point, a professional wrestling pay-per-view.

International relations

International relations (IR), a branch of political science, is the study of foreign affairs of and relations among states within the international system, including the roles of inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and can be either positive or normative as it both seeks to analyze as well as formulate foreign policy. Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues, from globalization and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, terrorism, organized crime and human rights.

International relations theory

International relations theory attempts to provide a conceptual model upon which international relations can be analyzed. Each theory is reductive and essentialist to different degrees, relying on different sets of assumptions respectively. As Oli Holsti describes them, international relations theories act as a pair of colored sunglasses, allowing the wearer to see only the salient events relevant to the theory. An adherent of realism may completely disregard an event that a constructivist might pounce upon as crucial, and vice versa. The number and character of the assumptions made by an international relations theory also determine its usefulness. Realism, a parsimonius and very essentialist theory, has less explanatory power, but greater predictive power. Liberalism, which examines a very wide number of conditions, is less useful in making predictions, but can be very insightful in analyzing past events. Traditional theories may have little to say about the behavior of former colonies, but post-colonial theory may have greater insight into that specific area, where it fails in other situations. Major schools of thought include:
- Realism
- Neo-realism
- Liberalism
- Neo-liberalism
- Neoconservatism
- Isolationism
- Functionalism
- Neofunctionalism
- Marxism
- Leninism
- Constructivism
- Feminism
- Post-colonialism

History

The history of international relations is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 where the modern states system was developed. The Westphalia settlement marked the start of a novel premise in international affairs: armed struggle was no longer defined as a contest between varieties of confessional truths, but rather, a dispute among secular "sovereigns". The final settlement of armed disputes, after Westphalia, was no longer the province of military contractors and theologians - but the termination of war fell within the purview of an identifiable coterie of a new class: Professional diplomats and warriors sworn to the service of a state. Before the Westphalia settlement, there was no recognizable diplomatic profession. Spies, irregular envoys, and heralds citing scripture or handing out ringing declamations were the usual route that princes chose to alert one another to each other's demands and to sound the start of war. After Westphalia, the diplomatic craft was practiced by a kind of well-born guild, with members who were adept at melding reason, precedent, and law with quiet allusion to the implication of armed compunction. Before Westphalia, soldiers were led by contractors, private entrepreneurs who garnered pay from their won estates or from the lands they plundered. After Westphalia, soldiers were led by military bureaucrats who raised armies year-round and paid for their keep through levies and taxes. After Westphalia, diplomats and warriors began to share a kind of regulatory synergy. Both diplomat and warrior sought less "victory," and more, the achievement of a favorable peace. War, after Westphalia, as the great observer Carl von Clausewitz put it, came to be a "stronger form of diplomacy," and the battlefield an extension of the conference chamber. Initially, International Relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely English-centered. The first two schools to form academic divisions directly focused on the study of IR were: in 1919, the first Chair in International Politics established at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth from an endowment given by David Davies; and in the early 1920s the London School of Economics's department of International Relations, founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker.

Criticisms

Critics of this interpretation of history argue that it is inherently eurocentric; some non-European territories recognized states in a manner resembling the Westphalian system before 1648 whereas others had wildly different systems. Others (such as Andrew Linklater) argue that today's system is post-Westphalian due to the expansion of the political community into supranational governance through projects such as the European Union. Barry Buzan and Richard Little find that theories modelling their conceptualizations of international society on the Westphalian system are unable to grasp both the premodern international systems and answer the most important questions about international society today. Buzan and Little therefore define an international system as a system in which it is possible to distinguish between an "inside" and an "outside" in political realms and consider an international system to have existed since the rise of civilisation in Sumeria.

Mechanisms of international relations

International relations do not exist in an abstract vacuum—each state (and sometimes sub-state actor) utilizes institutions, traditions, identity, force, rhetoric, and other channels to influence the other actors in the international system.

Official

- Summits, diplomacy, international organizations, supranational organizations, armed conflict, treaties, trade policy, visa policy.

Unofficial

- Business communities, cultural exchange, ethnic diasporas, transnational groups, NGOs, epistemic communities.

Covert

- Coups, espionage, subterfuge, sabotage, terrorism.

References

# Edward Said (1979), Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books (see also: [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1010417,00.html]) # The United States and the Discipline of International Relations: Hegemonic Country, Hegemonic Discipline?, International Studies Review, Vol 4 (2), 2002, pp 67-86

External links

- [http://www.isn.ethz.ch International Relations and Security Network]
- Global Public Policy Institute, Berlin & Geneva. Independent non-profit think tank that covers a variety of global governance issues from a Global Public Policy perspective. [http://www.globalpublicpolicy.net GPPi] For an excellent collection of articles on IR and GPP, follow this [http://www.globalpublicpolicy.net/index.php?id=11 link.]
- [http://www.eufpc.org/ EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council] - Interdisciplinary Think-tank and Network
- [http://www.tamilnation.org/intframe/ International Relations in the Age of Empire]
- [http://future.wikicities.com/wiki/Scenario Wikifutures Geopolitical Scenarios]
- [http://hir.harvard.edu/articles/1252/1/ Article on Realism x Liberalism] - Harvard International Review article promoting virtues of Liberalism over Realism
- [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/FRUS The Foreign Relations of the United States] : The Foreign Relations of the United States series is the official documentary historical record of major U.S. foreign policy decisions that have been declassified and edited for publication. The series is produced by the State Department's Office of the Historian and printed volumes are available from the Government Printing Office. This digital collection has been digitized and is publically accessible from the [http://uwdcc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center]. ja:国際関係論

International crisis

An international crisis is a crisis between nations. There are many definitions of an international crisis. Snyder [1] defines an international crisis a "...a sequence of interactions between the governments of two or more sovereign states in severe conflict, short of actual war, but involving the perception of a dangerously high probability of war".

Types

Lebow [2] gives a breakdown of three types of international crises:
- Justification of Hostilities. One of the nations decides, before the crisis starts, to go to war and constructs a crisis to justify it. The pattern of justificaion is almost always the same: Rouse public opinion, make impossible demands, try to legitimize the demands, deny your real intentions then employ the rejection of the demands as a reason for war.
- Spinoff Crisis. The nations are involved in a war or crisis with another nation or nations and this precipitates another crisis, e.g. the Lusitania incident in 1915.
- Brinkmanship. Intentionally forcing a crisis to get the other side to back down. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 is a well-known example of brinkmanship. With the exception of a justification of hostilities, the study of international crises assumes that neither side actually wants to go to war, but must be visibly prepared to do so. In the words of Groucho Marx, "Always be sincere, even if you don't mean it".

Strategies

George's book [3] presents an overview of the process and conflicting goals of crisis management as well as many examples. He discusses a number of strategies, including:

Offensive strategies

- blackmail
- limited and reversible response
- controlled pressure
- attrition
- fait accompli

Defensive strategies

- coercion
- limited escalation
- tit-for-tat
- test of capabilites
- "drawing a line"

List of defused crises

For information on international crises that resulted immediately in war, see List of wars.
- Anglo-Portuguese Crisis (1889-1890)
- Fashoda Incident (1898-1899)
- First Moroccan Crisis (1904-1906)
- Bosnian Crisis (1908-1909)
- Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
- July Crisis (1914)
- Rhineland Crisis (1936)
- Anschluss Crisis (1937-1938)
- Sudetenland Crisis (1938)
- Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
- Operation Paul Bunyan (1976)
- Able Archer (1983)

References

# Snyder, Glenn H. and Diesing, Paul: 1977. Conflict Among Nations: Bargaining, Decision Making and System Structure in International Crises. ISBN 0-691-05664-1 # Lebow, Richard N.:1981. Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis. ISBN 0-8018-2311-0 #George, Alexander L (ed): 1991. Avoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management. ISBN 0-8133-1232-9

External links

- [http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/icb/ International Crisis Behavior Online] Searchable analyses of 440 crises between 1918-2002 Category:International relations Category:War

Crises (economic)

In economics, crisis is an old term in business cycle theory, referring to the sharp transition to a recession. It is still used as part of Marxist political economy. It refers to a period in which the normal process of the reproduction of an economic process over time suffers from a temporary breakdown. This crisis period encourages intensified class conflict or societal change -- or the revival of a more normal accumulation process. Many or most observers of Karl Marx's theoretical work argue that Marx himself did not come to a final conclusion about the nature of crises under capitalism. Instead, his many works (published and unpublished) suggested several different theories, none of them free from controversy. A key characteristic of these theories is that none of them are natural or accidental in origin but instead arise from the nature of capitalism as a society. In Marx's words, "The real barrier of capitalist production is capital itself."[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/ch15.htm] These theories include:
- The tendency for the rate of profit to fall. The accumulation of capital involves a general tendency for the degree of capital intensity, i.e., the "organic composition of capital" of production to rise. All else constant, this leads to a fall in the rate of profit, which leads to a slow-down of capitalism and perhaps a crisis.
- Underconsumption. If the capitalists win the class struggle to push wages down and labor effort up, raising the rate of surplus value, then a capitalist economy faces regular problems of inadequate consumer demand and thus inadequate aggregate demand.
- Full employment profit squeeze. Capital accumulation can pull up the demand for labor-power, raising wages. If wages rise "too high," it hurts the rate of profit, causing a recession. In theory at least, these different views may not contradict each other and may instead be complementary parts of a synthetic crisis theory. See also:
- Crises in international relations
- crisis theory

Ваби-саби

Ва́би-са́би () представляет собой обширную часть японского мировоззрения или эстетики. Ваби-саби трудно объяснить, используя западные понятия, но эту эстетику порой описывают как красоту того, что несовершенно, мимолётно или незаконченно. По мнению Леонарда Корена, ваби-саби — наиболее заметная и характерная особенность того, что считается традиционной японской красотой и она «занимает примерно то же место в японском пантеоне эстетических ценностей, какое на Западе занимают греческие идеалы красоты и совершенства». Эндрю Джунипер утверждает, что «если объект или выражение могут возбудить в нас чувство светлой меланхолии и духовной жажды, тогда можно сказать, что этот объект есть ваби-саби». Ричард Пауэл подводит итог, говоря: «Подлинное научение ему (ваби-саби) происходит через осознание трёх простых фактов: ничто не вечно, ничто не закончено и ничто не совершенно». Рассматривая значения отдельных слов «ваби» и «саби», можно найти чувства одиночества и запустения. В дзенском ощущении мира они видятся как положительные признаки, представляющие освобождение от материального мира и «трансцендентный» выход за его пределы, к простой жизни. Сама дзенская философия, однако, предупреждает, что истинное понимание не достижимо посредством слов или языка, поэтому принятие ваби-саби через несловесные способы выражения может оказаться наиболее подходящим подходом.

Ваби-саби в японском искусстве

Многие виды японского искусства в течении последнего тысячелетия подвергались влиянию философии Дзен, в частности, концепциям восприятия несовершенства, постоянного течения и непостоянства всего. Такие виды искусств могут служить примером эстетики ваби-саби. Ниже дан неполный список:
- японские сады, дзенские сады, бонсай
- икебана
- японская чайная церемония
- японская поэзия, в частности, хайку
- японская керамика
- хонкёку (традиционная музыка странствующих дзенских монахов)

Использование на Западе

В 1990-х это понятие было позаимствовано разработчиками программного обеспечения и было задействована в концепции быстрой разработки ПО () и вики для описания одобрения состояния продолжающегося несовершенства, которым обладают результаты этих методов.

Литература

- Koren, Leonard (1994). Wabi-Sabi for Artists, Designers, Poets & Philosophers. Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 1880656124.
- Juniper, Andrew (2003). Wabi Sabi: The Japanese Art of Impermanence. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804834822.
- Powell, Richard R. (2004). Wabi Sabi Simple. Adams Media. ISBN 1593371780.

Внешние ссылки

- [http://www.livejournal.com/community/all_japan/15657.html all_japan: Японская эстетика — Краткий курс Ваби-саби] — отрывки из Juniper, Andrew. Wabi Sabi: The Japanese Art of Impermanence., перевёл Михаил Гертельман.
- [http://lib.ru/EMIGRATION/OVCHINNIKOV/sakura.txt#22 Четыре мерила прекрасного] — глава из книги Всеволода Овчинникова «Ветка Сакуры» (1971) Category:Культура Японии ja:わび・さび

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Crisis

Crises in international relations

Crisis in terms of Information Security

References

See also

Crisis (disambiguation)

Turning Point

International relations

International relations theory

History

Criticisms

Mechanisms of international relations

Official

Unofficial

Covert

References

See also

Journals

IR Schools

Associations

External links

International crisis

Types

Strategies

Offensive strategies

Defensive strategies

List of defused crises

See also

References

External links

Crises (economic)

Ваби-саби

Ваби-саби в японском искусстве

Использование на Западе

Литература

Внешние ссылки